13. Transmitting Knowledge; Tradition and Innovation in Medicine
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As with astronomy, medical knowledge in the postclassical world remained predominantly structured by the canonical works of classical authors. The theories of the Greek physician Galen (129– ca. 199/216) were rooted in far older treatises ascribed to Hippocrates (469–399 BC) and based upon analogies between the elements (fire, water, air, and earth), the four bodily fluids or humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile), and the four qualities (hot, cold, dry, and wet). These concepts remained dominant into the early modern period; physicians considered disease to be the result of humoral imbalances and prescribed vegetal or mineral concoctions as remedies. The voluminous Canon of Medicine, written by the most renowned physician of the medieval Islamic world, Avicenna (980–1037), was considered the definitive medical encyclopedia by Jews, Christians, and Muslims alike. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (ca. 1114–87), and scholars of Jewish origin played a key role in its continued transmission, revision, and adaptation. This culture of translation allowed precepts specific to Hellenic, Latin, and Muslim practitioners to be shared and synthesized. Often serving as court physicians, Jews were instrumental in transmitting medical knowledge to the intellectual centers of Northern Italy. Scholarly translations and commentaries in Latin and Hebrew, especially those based upon Greek or Arabic texts, were widespread. The vernacularization of medical knowledge was a key element in its application beyond merely the theoretical sphere.